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>>>> الرد الأول :
هذا ما وجدت أرجو أن يساعدك قليلا~~~~~~~~~~~~~
ان لقيت المزيد سأضعه~~~~~~
Survey about earthquakes
in California
1. What do you think are the biggest problems after (occured) earthquakes?
e) Destroyed infrastructure (bridges etc.)
2. What was the magnitude of the most intensive earthquake you’ve ever experienced?
Magnitude (Richter scale):
e) 6-7
3. How often do earthquakes occur in your area?
I can't answer this question with the options provided. There may be daily earthquakes up and down California, but if you talking about feeling earthquakes, it's more like yearly. No where near monthly.
4. What arrangements does the government make concerning the limitation of damage?
c) Earthquake-proved“ buildings, bridges (elastic)
5. Does the government participate in the compensation for damage (destroyed house)? If yes how much?
That sounds like more of a personal insurance issue. There are relief efforts if needed, but I don't know the percentage that comes from the government.
6. In what way are you prepared/shielded against earthquakes?
d) I’m not prepared at all, nor shielded.
e) Earthquakes usually don’t affect me
7. What are you concerned with most at the moment?
a) Economic crisis
8. How often do you think about earthquakes and their danger?
e) Monthly
(This question would be better if the options were qualified/rated as: All the time, Often, Sometimes, Never)
9. What scenario makes you most afraid?
d) An assault
10. Suppose, an eathquake destroyed your house, what would you do?
b) Rent a flat in the same town (already rent)
11. In what way are you interested/engaged in earthquake researches?
d) I’m not engaged, but I usually look for new discoveries (I think articles on earthquakes are interesting to read, but I'm not personally looking for new discoveries. Is that what you meant?)
12. Where do you get the information? (linked to question before)
a) Newspaper
e) TV
Interview: USGS Quake Expert on Likelihood of 9.0 Earthquake in California and Pacific Northwest
On Friday, after the massive earthquake and subsequent tsunami had hit Japan, Gretchen Weber of KQED's Climate Watch spoke with Tom Brocher, Director of the Earthquake Science Center at the U.S. Geological Survey in Menlo Park. Pretty interesting conversation for those of us who live in quake territory. After cautioning to be mindful of the tsunami's effects for 12 hours after the first waves struck (the tsunami advisory has now been canceled), he got into the subject of giant earthquakes.
Some things that Mr. Brocher pointed out:
The type of giant quake that hit Japan Thursday is not expected to menace the Bay Area, where the 7.9 quake of 1906 is thought to be at the upper limit of quakes in the area. The Japan quake was 30 times larger than the 1906 quake, and 900 times the size of the Loma Prieta temblor in 1989.
North of California, however is another story. A magnitude 9.0 or above quake in the Pacific Northwest is expected. Those quakes, which are the product of vast and deep faults, are characterized by their severity and the duration of shaking when they strike. Brocher said strong shaking lasted for 3-5 minutes during Thursday's tembler.
A quake in the 9.0 range occurs in the Pacific Northwest region every 300 - 500 years. The last one was in 1700, which scientists know because of a tsunami that was recorded in Japan at the time.
California Geological Survey - Frequently Asked Questions
Data collection
Frequently Asked Questions
What is an accelerometer? What is an accelerograph? And what is an accelerogram?
An accelerometer is a sensor that measures acceleration, like a speedometer measures speed. An accelerometer is often part of an accelerograph, which is an instrument that contains accelerometers and records the acceleration record. The acceleration record is called an accelerogram. Note the similarity to something much more familiar: The telegraph, is an instrument, and it produces a record that is called the telegram
What is acceleration? What does “g” stand for?
Acceleration, in physics, corresponds to the force applied to something that causes it to change its position or speed. It is the force you feel when a car accelerates from a stop sign, pushing you back into the car seat (it’s a horizontal force). Similarly, when an elevator starts moving, you feel more weight on your legs (it’s a vertical force). When a roller coaster car makes a hairpin turn, the acceleration may push you to the side, or up or down.
Acceleration is measured in “g”, where 1 g corresponds to the vertical acceleration force due to gravity. Roller coasters experience accelerations of 2 or more g, and fighter pilots may have to handle accelerations of 8g or more without passing out.
During an earthquake, the forces vary a lot and keep changing, back and forth and side to side. These forces, if they’re strong enough, can damage structures unless the structures have been specially designed. The largest earthquake forces that have been measured are about 1 to 2 g; most earthquakes have much lower forces, but those forces can still damage many structures.
What does strong motion mean?
The motion of a point on the ground during a small or distant earthquake can be so small that only specialized, precision instruments can record it. When the earthquake is larger (or closer), that motion will be larger. When the motion reaches the level where humans can feel it, typically a 1-2 %g, it is often called strong motion. This is an actually an arbitrary level, meant to communicate the level qualitatively, as when one says “heavy rain” vs. “light rain”.
What other sensors besides accelerometers are used to measure earthquake motion?
The most common sensor is not the accelerometer, which measures acceleration, but the seismometer, which measures the velocity or speed of a point on the ground as it moves during earthquake shaking. Most velocity sensors are high precision, sensitive instruments designed to record motions from distant earthquakes rather than the strong shaking that occurs near to earthquakes. Another instrument is the displacement sensor, which can be used in certain applications; in strong motion, they are most useful in measuring relative displacement (the distance between two points). Finally, GPS position sensing has become available and can be used to track the position of a point. Earthquake forces changes so rapidly during an earthquake that they must be measured many times each second (as many as 200). GPS doesn’t measure changes that rapid, but is ideal to get final ********s after an earthquake.
Why do you measure acceleration, instead of velocity, or displacement?
Acceleration gives the forces directly, so it can be used to establish the forces that a structure experiences during an earthquake. Also, acceleration sensors are generally the most hardy of all seismic sensors. In addition, they are usually small, only a few inches on a side, so they are easy to place at key ********s in a structure. The acceleration record can be computer processed and integrated to obtain the velocity and displacement records.
What does near-real-time vs. real-time mean?
A real-time signal is continuously being sent and received, with little or no delay, much like a newscast or program on TV. Near-real-time is delayed slightly because a communication link is established to send the data once an event occurs, much as one makes phone call to someone in order to give them a message. Near-real-time communication is generally more economical than a continuous data link, which makes it attractive for communication of infrequent events like the occurrence of earthquake shaking. Real-time communication is thought to be more reliable, but a big earthquake can interrupt many conventional communication pathways. To achieve the most robustness, all types of communication paths should be used achieve maximum redundancy (as is being done in CISN).
What is the difference between Richter magnitude and acceleration?
The Richter magnitude indicates the size or strength of an earthquake. For illustration, a parallel can be drawn with how the strength of an explosion will often be reported in terms of tons of TNT (or sticks of dynamite, in old movies). In contrast, the acceleration, or “g force” usually refers to the shaking experienced at a specific point due to the earthquake. This shaking is generally lower at greater distances from an earthquake, just as the sound level experienced from the dynamite blast is lower at points farther away from the explosion.
What does TriNet stand for?
What does CISN stand for?TriNet is a combined seismic network involving the networks of three agencies, Caltech, the US Geological Survey in Pasadena, and the California Strong Motion Program (in the Department of Conservation’s California Geological Survey). The TriNet effort was primarily supported by FEMA, through OES, as a result of the 1994 Northridge earthquake, and the funding ended for that in late 2000.CISN is the California Integrated Seismic Network, and similar to TriNet but with the addition of two northern California networks, the US Geological Survey in Menlo Park and UC Berkeley. With State support through OES, and federal support though the ANSS effort of the USGS, it makes the effort statewide.
Where can I find lists of strong-motion stations in California?
The lists of strong motion stations in California of the CSMIP and NSMP can be found on the web site of each program. In addition, the Northern and Southern California Seismic Networks maintain lists of seismic stations of their networks for both strong and weak motion stations.
Where can I find strong-motion data?
There are several strong-motion data collections for earthquakes of California and elsewhere. These include the CISN Engineering Data Center, of which the primary data sources are the CSMIP and NSMP networks, in CISN. For data immediately after an earthquake, see the “Internet Quick Report” at the Engineering Data Center. Additional data collections are the PEER database and COSMOS Virtual Data Center. For earthquakes outside California, the NSMP and COSMOS Virtual Data Center also host datasets for the US and selected regions in the world. An important European data collection can be accessed at the European Strong Motion Database, and Japanese records can be obtained at Kik-Net.
What types of buildings/structures does CSMIP instrument?
The CSMIP installs earthquake-monitoring devices in structures such as buildings, hospitals, bridges, dams, utilities and industrial facilities. The program has installed more than 1000 stations, including 700 ground-response stations, 170 buildings, 20 dams and 60 bridges. Sites are selected according to long-term strategies developed in consultation with the Strong Motion Instrumentation Advisory Committee, a committee of the Seismic Safety Commission.
What are the products of strong-motion data?
Strong motion data are used both for earthquake emergency response and for engineering and scientific research. For earthquake emergency response, applications such as the ShakeMaps use strong-motion data as input and generate near-real time information on the levels of ground shaking and loss assessment for emergency responders. Research products in engineering and scientific applications include evaluation of building/structure performance, near surface wave propagation and attenuation, local site characterization, and strong motion prediction, etc.
How do I find out about recent earthquakes in California?
Near-real-time earthquake maps and lists are available at the USGS Pasadena and in Menlo Park recent-earthquake sites and at the Southern California Earthquake Center.
Maps of shaking, called ShakeMaps, which show the areas of ground shaking for significant recent earthquakes are available for both Northern California and Southern California.
a report with a graph
06/05/2011
Latest Earthquakes in the World - Past 7 days
Worldwide earthquakes with M4.5+ located by USGS and Contributing Agencies.
(Earthquakes with M2.5+ within the United States and adjacent areas.)
Seven Steps to Earthquake Safety
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The information on this page is from materials created by the Emergency Survival Program (ESP) in 2006, and based on "The Seven Steps to Earthquake Safety" in the handbook, Putting Down Roots in Earthquake Country.
PREPARE
Step 1: Secure it now!
Reducing and/or eliminating hazards throughout your home, neighborhood, workplace and school can greatly reduce your risk of injury or death following the next earthquake or other disaster. Conduct a "hazard hunt" to help identify and fix things such as unsecured televisions, computers, bookcases, furniture, unstrapped water heaters, etc. Securing these items now will help to protect you tomorrow.
Step 2: Make a plan
Planning for an earthquake, terrorist attack, or other emergency is not much different from planning for a party or vacation. Make sure that your emergency plan includes evacuation and reunion plans; your out-of-state contact person's name and number; the ******** of your emergency supplies and other pertinent information. By planning now, you will be ready for the next emergency.
Step 3: Make disaster kits
Everyone should have disaster supplies kits stored in accessible ********s at home, at work and in your vehicle. Having emergency supplies readily available can reduce the impact of an earthquake, a terrorist incident or other emergency on you and your family. Your disaster supplies kits should include food, water, flashlights, portable radios, batteries, a first aid kit, cash, extra medications, a whistle, fire extinguisher, etc.
Most houses are not as safe as they could be. Whether you are a homeowner or a renter, there are things that you can do to improve the structural integrity of your home. Some of the things that you might consider checking include inadequate foundations, unbraced cripple walls, soft first stories, unreinforced masonry and vulnerable pipes. Consult a contractor or engineer to help you identify your building's weaknesses and begin to fix them now.
PROTECT
Learn what to do during an earthquake, whether you're at home, at work, at school or just out and about. Taking the proper actions, such as "Drop, Cover, and Hold On", can save lives and reduce your risk of death or injury. During earthquakes, drop to the floor, take cover under a sturdy desk or table, and hold on to it firmly. Be prepared to move with it until the shaking stops.
RECOVER
One of the first things you should do following a major disaster is to check for injuries and damages that need immediate attention. Make sure you are trained in first aid and in damage assessment techniques. You should be able to administer first aid and to identify hazards such as damaged gas, water, sewage and electrical lines. Be prepared to report damage to city or county government.
Step 7: Communicate and recover!
Following a major disaster, communication will be an important step in your recovery efforts. Turn on your portable radio for information and safety advisories. If your home is damaged, contact your insurance agent right away to begin your claims process. For most Presidentially declared disasters, resources will also be available from federal, state, and local government agencies.
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>>>> الرد الثاني :
جربي هذا أيضــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــا~~~~~~~~
A natural disaster is the effect of a natural hazard (e.g., flood, tornado, hurricane, volcanic eruption, earthquake, or landslide). It leads to financial, environmental or human losses. The resulting loss depends on the vulnerability of the affected population to resist the hazard, also called their resilience.[1] This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability."[2] A natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas.[3] The term natural has consequently been disputed because the events simply are not hazards or disasters without human involvement.[4] A concrete example of the division between a natural hazard and a natural disaster is that the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was a disaster, whereas earthquakes are a hazard. This article gives an introduction to notable natural disasters, refer to the list of natural disasters for a comprehensive listing.
Geological disasters
Avalanches
Main article: List of avalanches
See also: Avalanche
Avalanche on the backside (East) of Mt. Temping's, Utah at Aspen Grove trail
Notable avalanches include:
The 1910 Wellington avalanche
The 1910 Rogers Pass avalanche
The 1954 Blons avalanches
The 2002 Kolka-Karmadon rock ice slide
Earthquakes
Main article: List of earthquakes
See also: Earthquake
An earthquake is a sudden shake of the Earth's crust caused by the tectonic plates colliding. The vibrations may vary in magnitude. The underground point of origin of the earthquake is called the "focus". The point directly above the focus on the surface is called the" epicenter". Earthquakes by themselves rarely kill people or wildlife. It is usually the secondary events that they trigger, such as building collapse, fires, tsunamis (seismic sea waves) and volcanoes, that are actually the human disaster. Many of these could possibly be avoided by better construction, safety systems, early warning and evacuation planning. Earthquakes are caused by the discharge of energy accumulated along geologic fault .
Some of the most significant earthquakes in recent times include:
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the third largest earthquake in recorded history, registering a moment magnitude of 9.1-9.3. The huge tsunamis triggered by this earthquake cost the lives of at least 229,000 people.
The 2011 Tahoka earthquake and tsunami registered a moment magnitude of 9.0. The death toll from the earthquake and tsunami is over 13,000, and over 12, 000 people are still missing.
The 8.8 magnitude February 27, 2010 Chile earthquake and tsunami cost 525 lives.[5]
The 7.9 magnitude May 12, 2008 Sichuan earthquake in Sichuan Province, China. Death toll at over 61,150 as of May 27, 2008.
The 7.7 magnitude July 2006 Java earthquake, which also triggered tsunamis.
The 7.6-7.7 2005 Kashmir earthquake, which cost 79,000 lives in Pakistan.
Volcanic eruptions
Main article: List of largest volcanic eruptions
See also: Types of volcanic eruptions
Volcanoes can cause widespread destruction and consequent disaster through several ways. The effects include the volcanic eruption itself that may cause harm following the explosion of the volcano or the fall of rock. Second, lava may be produced during the eruption of a volcano. As it leaves the volcano the lava destroys any buildings and plants it encounters. Third, volcanic ash generally meaning the cooled ash - may form a cloud, and settle thickly in nearby ********s. When mixed with water this forms a concrete-like material. In sufficient quantity ash may cause roofs to collapse under its weight but even small quantities will harm humans
if inhaled. Since the ash has the consistency of ground glass it causes abrasion damage to moving parts such as engines. The main killer of humans in the immediate surrounding of an volcanic eruption is the pyroclastic flows, which consist of a cloud of hot volcanic ash which builds up in the air above the volcano and rushes down the slopes when the eruption no longer supports the lifting of the gases. It is believed that Pompeii was destroyed by a pyroclastic flow. A lahar is a volcanic mudflow or landslide. The 1953 Tangiwai disaster was caused by a lahar, as was the 1985 Armero tragedy in which the town of Armor was buried and an estimated 23,000 people were killed.
A specific type of volcano is the supervolcano. According to the Toba catastrophe theory 70 to 75 thousand years ago a super volcanic event at Lake Toba reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs creating a bottleneck in human evolution. It also killed three quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere. The main danger from a supervolcano is the immense cloud of ash which has a disastrous global effect on climate and temperature for many years.
Hydrological disasters
Floods
Main article: List of floods
See also: Flooding
The Limpopo River, in southern Mozambique, during the 2000 Mozambique flood
Some of the most notable floods include:
The Huang He (Yellow River) in China floods particularly often. The Great Flood of 1931 caused between 800,000 and 4,000,000 deaths.
The Great Flood of 1993 was one of the most costly floods in United States history.
The 1998 Yangtze River Floods, also in China, left 14 million people homeless.
The 2000 Mozambique flood covered much of the country for three weeks, resulting in thousands of deaths, and leaving the country devastated for years afterward.
The 2010 Pakistan floods, damaged crops and the infrastructure, while claiming many lives.
Tropical cyclones can result in extensive flooding and storm surge, as happened with:
Bhola Cyclone, which struck East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) in 1970,
Typhoon Nina, which struck China in 1975,
Hurricane Katrina, which struck New Orleans, Louisiana in 2005, and
Cyclone Yasi, which struck Australia in 2011
Limnic eruptions
See also: Limnic eruption
A cow suffocated by gases from Lake Nyos after a limnic eruption
A limnic eruption occurs when a gas, usually CO2 suddenly erupts from deep lake water, posing the threat of suffocating wildlife, livestock and humans. Such an eruption may also cause tsunamis in the lake as the rising gas displaces water. Scientists believe landslides, volcanic activity, or explosions can trigger such an eruption. To date, only two limnic eruptions have been observed and recorded:
In 1984, in Cameroon, a limnic eruption in Lake Monoun caused the deaths of 37 nearby residents.
At nearby Lake Nyos in 1986 a much larger eruption killed between 1,700 and 1,800 people by asphyxiation.
Tsunamis
Main article: Historic tsunamis
See also: Tsunami
The tsunami caused by the December 26, 2004, earthquake strikes Ao Nang, Thailand.
Tsunamis can be caused by undersea earthquakes as the one caused in Ao Nang, Thailand, by the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake, or by landslides such as the one which occurred at Lituya Bay, Alaska.
Ao Nang, Thailand (2004). The 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake created the Boxing Day Tsunami and disaster at this site.
Latoya Bay, Alaska (1953).
2010 Chile earthquake
On October 26, 2010, a tsunami occurred at Sumatra, Indonesia
On March 11, 2011, a tsunami occurred near Fukushima, Japan and spread through the Pacific.
Meteorological disasters
See also: Meteorological disasters
Young steer after a blizzard, March 1966
Blizzards
See also: Blizzard
Blizzards are severe winter storms characterized by low temperature, strong winds, and heavy snow. The difference between a blizzard and a snow storm is the strength of the wind. To be a considered a blizzard, the storm must have winds in excess of 35 miles per hour, it should reduce the visibility to 1/4 miles, and must last for a prolonged period of 3 hours or more. Ground blizzards require high winds to stir up snow that has already fallen, rather than fresh snowfall. Blizzards have a negative impact on local economics and can terminate the visibility in regions where snowfall is rare.
Significant blizzards include:
The Great Blizzard of 1888 in the United States
The 2008 Afghanistan blizzard
The North American blizzard of 1947
The 1972 Iran blizzard resulted in approximately 4,000 deaths and lasted for 5 to 7 days.
Cyclonic storms
Main article: List of tropical cyclones
See also: Tropical cyclone and Cyclone
Cyclone, tropical cyclone, hurricane, and typhoon are different names for the same phenomenon a cyclonic storm system that forms over the oceans. The deadliest hurricane ever was the 1970 Bhola cyclone; the deadliest Atlantic hurricane was the Great Hurricane of 1780 which devastated Martinique, St. Eustatius and Barbados. Another notable hurricane is Hurricane Katrina which devastated the Gulf Coast of the United States in 2005.
Droughts
See also: Drought
Well-known historical droughts include:
1900 India killing between 250,000 and 3.25 million.
1921-22 Soviet Union in which over 5 million perished from starvation due to drought
1928-30 northwest China resulting in over 3 million deaths by famine.
1936 and 1941 Sichuan Province China resulting in 5 million and 2.5 million deaths respectively.
As of 2006, states of Australia including South Australia, Western Australia, New South Wales, Northern Territory and Queensland had been under drought conditions for five to ten years. The drought is beginning to affect urban area populations for the first time. With the majority of the country underwater restrictions.
In 2006, Sichuan Province China experienced its worst drought in modern times with nearly 8 million people and over 7 million cattle facing water shortages.
Hailstorms
See also: Hail
Hailstorms are rain drops that have formed together into ice. A particularly damaging hailstorm hit Munich, Germany, on July 12, 1984, causing about 2 billion dollars in insurance claims.
Heat waves
See also: Heat wave
The worst heat wave in recent history was the European Heat Wave of 2003.
Hurricane Katrina
A summer heat wave in Victoria, Australia, created conditions which fuelled the massive bushfires in 2009. Melbourne experienced three days in a row of temperatures exceeding 40°C with some regional areas sweltering through much higher temperatures. The bushfires, collectively known as "Black Saturday", were partly the act of arsonists.
The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer resulted in severe heat waves, which killed over 2,000 people. It resulted in hundreds of wildfires which causing widespread air pollution, and burned thousands of square miles of forest.
Tornadoes
Main article: List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
See also: Tornado
This section requires expansion.
A tornado (often referred to as a twister or, erroneously, a cyclone) is a violent, dangerous, rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, but are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris and dust. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (177 km/h), are approximately 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme can attain wind speeds of more than 300 mph (480 km/h), stretch more than two miles (3 km) across, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[1][2][3]
Fires
Main article: List of forest fires
See also: Wildfire
Wildfires are an uncontrolled fire burning in wild land areas. Common causes include lightning and drought but wildfires may also be started by human negligence or arson. They can be a threat to those in rural areas and also wildlife.
Notable cases of wildfires were the 1871 Peshtigo Fire in the United States, which killed at least 1700 people, and the 2009 Victorian bushfires in Australia.
Health disasters
Epidemics
Main article: List of epidemics
See also: Epidemics
The A H5N1 virus, which causes Avian influenza
An epidemic is an outbreak of a contractible disease that spreads at a rapid rate through a human population. A pandemic is an epidemic whose spread is global. There have been many epidemics throughout history, such as Black Death. In the last hundred years, significant pandemics include:
The 1918 Spanish flu pandemic, killing an estimated 50 million people worldwide
The 1957-58 Asian flu pandemic, which killed an estimated 1 million people
The 1968-69 Hong Kong flu pandemic
The 2002-3 SARS pandemic
The AIDS pandemic, beginning in 1959
The H1N1 Influenza (Swine Flu) Pandemic 2009-2010
Other diseases that spread more slowly, but are still considered to be global health emergencies by the WHO include:
XDR TB, a strain of tuberculosis that is extensively resistant to drug treatments
Malaria, which kills an estimated 1.6 million people each year
Ebola hemorrhagic fever, which has claimed hundreds of victims in Africa in several outbreaks
Famines
Main article: List of famines
See also: Famine
In modern times, famine has hit Sub-Saharan Africa the hardest, although the number of victims of modern famines is much smaller than the number of people killed by the Asian famines of the 20th century.
Space disasters
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